Study for the development of an endurance testing method for washing machines

This study is part of a technical support contract signed between DG Environment and DG Joint Research Centre, regarding Environmental Footprinting, material efficiency in product policy and the European Platform on LCA (2013-2017). In particular, Task and Deliverable 8 are entitled “Develop/test potentially standardized method on material efficiency, to be applied to relevant product groups” and aim at developing feasibility studies on potentially standardized methods for assessing durability of products. The main objective of this report consists of outlining and testing a procedure for assessing durability of electric washing machines for household use. In particular the report will: • investigate existing endurance tests, • define whether such endurance tests can be suitable for a possible standardised testing procedure, • develop and test a durability procedure on exemplary washing machines, and • assess the durability procedure and provide guidelines for future development. Chapters 2 and 3 of the present report concern I) a literature review, with a focus on the state of the art of washing machine durability, the average usage in Europe, frequent failure modes and different existing theories behind durability tests; II) the study of existing international standards, currently dealing with safety of electronic devices and household appliances, endurance requirements for washing machine parts and guidelines to assess the performance during the washing cycle; III) comments and feedback from experts that were contacted during the study in order to gather information about tests, non-disclosed procedures, failure mode statistics and possible answers to the question of methods able to measure or to verify durability. Chapter 4 provides the scientific background about the dynamics of a horizontal axis washing machine, which can be seen physically as a vibrating system where the tub (including the drum) is fixed with springs on the top of the housing. Finally, a novel procedure for durability testing is proposed in chapter 5. The proposed method is a first attempt to find a framework in which several washing machine types can fit in and, eventually, a point of discussion for further improvements and diversification. The results of the proposed method are presented in chapter 6 and discussed in chapter 7.JRC.D.3-Land Resource

Pollen and non-pollen palynomorph data from Lake Iznik, NW Turkey (last 31 ka cal BP)

The Marmara region in northwestern Turkey provides a unique opportunity for studying the vegetation history in response to climate changes and anthropogenic impacts because of its location between different climate and vegetation zones and its long settlement history. Geochemical and mineralogical investigations of the largest lake in the region, Lake Iznik, already registered climate-related changes of the lake level and the lake mixing. However, a palynological investigation encompassing the Late Pleistocene to Middle Holocene was still missing. Here, we present the first pollen record of the last ca. 31 ka cal BP (calibrated kilo years before 1950) inferred from Lake Iznik sediments as an independent proxy for paleoecological reconstructions. Our study reveals that the vegetation in the Iznik area changed generally between (a) steppe during glacials and stadials indicating dry and cold climatic conditions, (b) forest-steppe during interstadials indicating milder and moister climatic conditions, and (c) oak-dominated mesic forest during interglacials indicating warm and moist climatic conditions. Moreover, a pronounced succession of pioneer trees, cold temperate, warm temperate, and Mediterranean trees appeared since the Lateglacial. Rapid climate changes, which are reflected by vegetation changes, can be correlated with Dansgaard-Oeschger (DO) events such as DO-4, DO-3, and DO-1, the Younger Dryas, and probably also the 8.2 event. Since the mid-Holocene, the vegetation was influenced by anthropogenic activities. During early settlement phases, the distinction between climate-induced and human-induced changes of the vegetation is challenging. Still, evidence for human activities consolidates since the Early Bronze Age (ca. 4.8 ka cal BP): cultivated trees, crops, and secondary human indicator taxa appeared, and forests were cleared. Subsequent fluctuations between extensive agricultural uses and regenerations of the natural vegetation become apparent

Impacts of climate and humans on the vegetation in northwestern Turkey: palynological insights from Lake Iznik since the Last Glacial

The Marmara region in northwestern Turkey provides a unique opportunity for studying the vegetation history in response to climate changes and anthropogenic impacts because of its location between different climate and vegetation zones and its long settlement history. Geochemical and mineralogical investigations of the largest lake in the region, Lake Iznik, already registered climate-related changes of the lake level and the lake mixing. However, a palynological investigation encompassing the Late Pleistocene to Middle Holocene was still missing. Here, we present the first pollen record of the last ca. 31 ka cal BP (calibrated kilo years before 1950) inferred from Lake Iznik sediments as an independent proxy for paleoecological reconstructions. Our study reveals that the vegetation in the Iznik area changed generally between (a) steppe during glacials and stadials indicating dry and cold climatic conditions, (b) forest-steppe during interstadials indicating milder and moister climatic conditions, and (c) oak-dominated mesic forest during interglacials indicating warm and moist climatic conditions. Moreover, a pronounced succession of pioneer trees, cold temperate, warm temperate, and Mediterranean trees appeared since the Lateglacial. Rapid climate changes, which are reflected by vegetation changes, can be correlated with Dansgaard-Oeschger (DO) events such as DO-4, DO-3, and DO-1, the Younger Dryas, and probably also the 8.2 event. Since the mid-Holocene, the vegetation was influenced by anthropogenic activities. During early settlement phases, the distinction between climate-induced and human-induced changes of the vegetation is challenging. Still, evidence for human activities consolidates since the Early Bronze Age (ca. 4.8 ka cal BP): cultivated trees, crops, and secondary human indicator taxa appeared, and forests were cleared. Subsequent fluctuations between extensive agricultural uses and regenerations of the natural vegetation become apparent

Durability testing procedure for washing machines – approach and first learnings

Durable products allow to reduce the consumption of raw materials long-term and to contribute to waste minimization. Thus, durability plays a key role to enhance circular economy and resource conservation, for example in the category of electrical and electronic equipment. However, it was observed that the average lifetime of these products has decreased over recent years. We identified the washing machine product group as a relevant case study for the development of a durability test, and as a potential trigger to systematically address durability in the design of products. The main objective of this research was to develop a procedure to test minimum durability performance of washing machines, on which limitations and potentials for future improvements would be highlighted. The procedure was developed to potentially be used in policy. The durability test was developed considering the whole product tested under overstressed conditions. A series of spinning cycles with fixed unbalanced loads was run on two washing machines, to observe failures and performance changes during the test. Even though no hard failures occurred, results clearly showed that not all of the washing machines are able to sustain such a test without abrasion, or performance deterioration. The proposed test allowed to have results in a relatively short amount of efforts and time, which makes it compatible with policy constraints. However, the attempt to mimic the stress induced on a washing machine by doing a high number of pure spinning cycles with fixed loads did not allow equal testing conditions: The actions of the control procedure regarding unbalance loads differ from machine to machine. Therefore, future developments will need to replace the series of spinning cycles with various washing programmes, and the fixed unbalanced loads with real loads, paying attention to limit the time required by the test. The outcomes of this research can be used as a basis to develop standardized durability tests and to hence contribute to the development of future product’s policy measures.JRC.D.3-Land Resource

Towards a durability test for washing machines

Durability plays a key role to enhance resource conservation and to contribute to waste minimization. An example of product category whose the average lifetime has decreased over recent years is electrical and electronic equipment. Specifically, we identified the washing machine product group as a relevant case study for the development of a durability test, and as a potential trigger to systematically address durability in the design of products. The main objective of this research was to develop a procedure to test minimum durability performance of washing machines, on which limitations and potentials for future improvements can be highlighted. The durability test was developed considering the whole product tested under stressed conditions. A series of spinning cycles with fixed unbalanced loads was run on two washing machines, to observe failures and performance changes during the test. Even though no hard failures occurred, results clearly showed that not all of the washing machines are able to sustain such a test without abrasion, or performance deterioration. The proposed test allowed to have results in a relatively short amount of efforts and time, which makes it compatible with policy constraints. However, the attempt to reproduce the stress induced on a washing machine by doing a high number of pure spinning cycles with fixed loads did not allow equal testing conditions: the actions of the control procedure regarding unbalance loads differ from machine to machine. Therefore, future developments will need to replace the series of spinning cycles with various washing programmes, and the fixed unbalanced loads with real loads, paying attention to limit the time required by the test. The outcomes of this research can be used as grounds to develop standardized durability tests and to hence contribute to the development of future product policy measures.JRC.D.3-Land Resource